XVIII amžiaus studijos / The Eighteenth Century Studies

Straipsnyje atskleidžiama Vilniaus jėzuitų ganytojiška veikla plačiame Katalikų Bažnyčios potridentinio atsinaujinimo kontekste. Autorius analizuoja įvairialypius vienuolių veiklos aspektus, tokius kaip pamokslininkystė, šventųjų ir Švenčiausiosios Mergelės Marijos kulto puoselėjimas, studentų kongregacijų bei suaugusiesiems skirtų brolijų veiklos skatinimas ir kita. Pažymima, kad, būdami ypač kompetentingi kalbų srityje, jėzuitai teikė dvasinę globą ne tik Vilniaus gyventojams lenkams, bet ir vokiečiams bei lietuviams. Jėzuitai taip pat atliko svarbų vaidmenį reformuojant kitas vienuolijas, o jų įtaka bazilijonų vienuolijos intelektualinei ir dvasinei raidai nekelia jokių abejonių. Šv. Ignaco Lojolos ordino vienuoliai aktyvia veikla ir aukomis prisidėjo tiek prie 1655–1660 m. Maskvos okupacijos padarytos žalos, tiek ir prie 1710 m. miestą nusiaubusios maro epidemijos padarinių likvidavimo. Šių kataklizmų metu jėzuitai vykdė nesančios diecezinės dvasininkijos funkcijas. Organizuodami ganytojišką veiklą, Vilniaus jėzuitai sulaukė ne tik bajorijos ir didikų palaikymo, bet ir pasiturinčių miestiečių paramos. Atsakydamas į išsikeltus tyrimo tikslus, straipsnio autorius pažymi, kad Vilniaus jėzuitų ganytojiška veikla atitiko bendrąsias potridentinės Katalikų Bažnyčios dievotumo tendencijas. Tačiau Vilniuje veikę Jėzaus draugijos nariai išliko atviri gilias šaknis įleidusioms vietos religingumo apraiškoms ir prisidėjo stiprindami lokalinį šv. Kazimiero kultą, to meto visuomenės akivaizdžiai tapatintą su Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės valstybingumu.

The article analyses data of the 567 Franciscan Friars Conventual from the Lithuanian St Casimir province, who died in the period of 1775–1832: age of entry, geographic and social background. These are the factors that allow to restore the dynamics of the development of this brotherhood. Order of Friars Minor Conventual accepted individuals from 12 to 40 years of age (94.6 % of all candidates), and this was in accordance with age requirements set within the Franciscan Order. Later, when faced with the calling crisis, the brotherhood started integrating candidates of a more mature age (sometimes even 67 years old) who could become both lay brothers (Lat. laicus professus) and friars priests (Lat. clericus proffessus). Likewise, both groups could include married men, who were formally named as friars of the Third Order (Lat. tertiarius claustralis). Therefore, this flexibility of the brotherhood, its ability to deal with the issues of the period, ensured viability of the community. The research revealed, that sometimes the brotherhood would be “enlivened” by the inter-congregational “migration” of the friars, which was not voluminous: the Franciscan Order would be joined by friars formerly from Carthusian, Bernardine, Discalced Carmelite and Piarist orders, yet sometimes Franciscan Conventual Friars would leave for the Dominicans or the Carmelites. Such movement shows the continuous search by the “men of prayer” on the path of spiritual calling. The established presence of several converts (Uniats, Jews) in the brotherhood shows that the Franciscans did have, even if not strong, influence in towns and in the eastern part of the Grand Duchy. On the other hand, “migrant” friars and converts would enrich the brotherhood spiritually and culturally. The dominance of nobility in the brotherhood shows specific social identity of the Franciscans Conventual. This was the reason for such limited number of callings, because eastern part of the province was dominated by the Uniats and nobility was less numerous. The other side of this phenomenon was that regions of Podlasie, Mazovia and Samogitia (with only one convent in each), with a numerous presence of Roman Catholic petty nobility, have become the resource “bases” for Franciscan candidates, unlike voivodeships of Vilnius, Trakai and Polatsk with the thickest network of convents, where the number of callings was small. townspeople (half of them from Vilnius and the rest – from other regional towns). Around 9 % of the friars were from peasantry (most of them were from the Franciscan dominions, also nearby parishes as well as further located parishes). The largest part, a whole 68 %, were individuals from nobility. Such social composition was first of all defined by family relations, when after one person joining the convent others would follow, either close or more distant relatives. At the same time, attracting (recruitment) of the new members was aided by the appeal of the Franciscans, their influence in society and their devotion. In time, a peculiar symbiosis of confessional and social factors was formed, when joining the brotherhood

The key figure of this article is the late eighteenth-century canon priest of Livonia and parish priest of Vilkaviškis and Vaukavysk Wincenty Bakuzicz. Historical information on this person is scarce. His career of a clergyman began with the service in Vilnius Chapter, however during Bar Confederation (1768–1772) he got involved in its activities, travelled with a mission to Teshin and later was imprisoned by Russian imperial army officers, providing information on the movements of the Confederates. After being released from prison, W. Bakuzicz did not make any significant career in Vilnius Chapter, becoming parish priest of Vilkaviškis and Vaukavysk and being involved in several criminal court cases in Vilnius and its district. In 1794, during the uprising of Tadeusz Kosciuszko he was imprisoned by the rebels in Vilnius, although soon released. In that year he arranged his will, where he assigned significant sums to charity. The life of W. Bakuzicz was one of paradox and contradiction, just as was the entire period.

The article summarizes data on the training of painters and sculptors in the eighteenth-century workshops of the Radvilas’ artists. We seek to evaluate it in the context of the educational phenomena of early modern times. The analysis concerns organization of training, teaching practices, and their dissemination. In the eighteenth century, training of the subjects was carried out in the Radvilas’ residences of several generations. Some teachers were subjects of the dukes, some – arrivals working under contracts. The Radvilas continuously renewed the manor using qualified masters. Some of them were foreigners, experienced artists that mastered different art techniques. Training usually took place in the manor although there are known cases of sponsored trips of the artists to larger cities of the Commonwealth of Both Nations, where subjects improved their skills in the workshops of local artists. In the Radvilas’ residences practical training was dominant. Basics of drawing were studied first, pupils drew sculptural models, copied paintings from the collections of the aristocrats, assisted to masters in implementing orders from the dukes. Thus training in the Radvilas’ residences was performed using practices common in training artists of the early modern times. In the context of training of the Radvilas’ artists stands out the project by Jeronimas Florijonas Radvila to establish a drawing school, which had to be directed by a member of the Viennese academy of painting, sculpture and architecture, painter and drawer Lorenzo Titian de Vecceli. Perhaps in 1756, an eight- year contract was concluded according to which he was to teach young men the drawing of landscapes, figures and ornaments. In the contract this drawing school was called academy, probably after a fashion of the similar eighteenthcentury European, often small ones, schools, called academies. In Biala of Podlasie, Lorenzo Titian worked until the death of Florijonas Radvila in 1760. Although almost there is no data on activities of this artist in Biala, it is probable that the master was teaching to draw. Titian’s work for Radvila was brief and, possibly, did not have any significant influence on the education of the local artists. Despite this, Radvila’s idea and start of its implementation showed the need for higher level training of artists. Links of the Radvilas’ artists with professional and specialized educational institutions were rare. In the residences of the dukes, just like in the rest of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, dominated little formalized education of artists. Although it was not always effective, it has produced a number of masters that continued working for the Radvilas. Tutors were usually shared among family members, although there is data on the work of the artists of the dukes for the representatives of other families. Having in mind the scope and dissemination of the training of artists, residences of the Radvilas can be considered one of the important centres of art education in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

1756 m. Vilniuje įsteigta pijorų kolegija (Collegium Nobilium) iki šiol nesulaukė monografinių tyrimų. Ši ypatinga pijorų institucija buvo svarbus etapas šv. Juozapo Kalasanto įkurtos vienuolijos organizacinės struktūros raidoje, tiek ir vienuolijai įgyvendinant naują edukacinę programą. Ją galime laikyti vienu iš Europos civilizacijos stulpų. Steigdami kolegiją Vilniuje pijorai sekė Romos Collegium Nazarenum bei Stanisławo Konarskio Varšuvoje įkurtos Collegium Nobilium pavyzdžiais. Šių mokyklų siekis buvo palengvinti Bažnyčios mokymą, padėti formuoti ir kontroliuoti visuomenės elitą, įtvirtinti turtingųjų klientų įsitikinimą, kad nėra jokio prieštaravimo tarp teologijos ir likusiųjų mokslų, taip pat suderinti ugdymo tikslus su valstybės ir šeimos (giminės) tikslais. Pijorų keliami pavyzdiniai ugdymo tikslai stiprino vienuolijos prestižą bei įtaką, kuri per viešus pasirodymus, „akademijas“, teatro ir mėgėjų spektaklius plito toli už mokyklos bendruomenės

Tautinė edukacinė komisija jos sudarymo metu 1773 m. dar neturėjo savo būsimos organizacinės struktūros vizijos. Šios struktūros kūrimas truko gana ilgai ir buvo patvirtintas tik po dešimties metų, 1783 m. Tautinės edukacinės komisijos nariams priėmus „Nuostatus, skirtus akademiniam luomui ir mokykloms Respublikos kraštuose“. Remiantis šiais „Nuostatais“, Abiejų Tautų Respublika buvo padalyta į 10 švietimo apygardų: 6 – Lenkijos Karalystėje ir 4 – Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje. Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje įsteigtos Lietuvos, Naugarduko, Žemaitijos ir Polesės švietimo apygardos. Straipsnyje pristatomas bendras Lietuvos apygardos vidurinių mokyklų, veikusių Gardine, Vilniuje, Balstogėje, Vyšniave, Pastovyse, Valkaviske, Merkinėje, Lydoje ir Ščiutine, vaizdas. Atskleidžiama šių mokyklų veikla, mokytojų korpusas, mokinių sudėtis, mokymo programos įgyvendinimo problemos, mokymo sėkmės ir nesėkmės.

Podolės žemių generalinis seniūnas kunigaikštis Adomas Kazimieras Čartoriskis (1734–1823) buvo vienas iš aštuonių Tautinės edukacinės komisijos narių, Abiejų Tautų Respublikos seimo išrinktų į šią komisiją 1773 m. Straipsnyje bendrais bruožais pristatoma A. K. Čartoriskio biografija, išryškinant jo patirtį ir nuopelnus švietimo srityje. Pagrindinis tyrimo tikslas yra atskleisti 1780 m. A. K. Čartoriskio atliktos Ukrainos ir Podolės žemių departamento, iš kitų edukacinės sistemos administracinių vienetų išsiskyrusio tiek teritorijos dydžiu, tiek ir ugdymo įstaigų skaičiumi, mokyklų patikrinimo rezultatus bei aptarti šios vizitacijos reikšmę tolesnei Tautinės edukacinės komisijos veiklai. Atlikus patikrinimą A. K. Čartoriskio parengta ataskaita – povizitacinis raportas – buvo priimtas kaip pavyzdinis, o jame išskirti pagrindiniai punktai buvo įtraukti į 1783 m. Tautinės edukacinės komisijos parengtus „Nuostatus, skirtus akademiniam luomui ir mokykloms Respublikos kraštuose“.

Through the case study of life and creation of Jan Bobrowski (1777–1823), student at Vilnius university department of literature and free arts, the article analyses how the first generation of professional intelligentsia came to life. Personal life and creation of Jan Bobrowski show, how in the junction of the eighteenth–nineteenth centuries a society was gradually emerging, in which professional career rather than social background was considered the indicator of personal success of a human being. J. Bobrowski chose his life in accordance with his calling. Educational work helped him not only to realise his intellectual aspirations, but also permitted ensurance of his material wellbeing. Active professional intellectual work placed J. Bobrowski among the ranks of the emerging intelligentsia. Educational works of J. Bobrowski served as educational popularization of science, whereas his participation in Vilnius Charity Fellowship had signs of social messiahship. This new group, represented by J. Bobrowski, which did not belong to estate structure, created personal space that matched their expectations. Wife of J. Bobrowski could also realize her creative potential whereas independent educational work provided her with opportunities to leave traditional social role of a woman.