XVIII amžiaus studijos / The Eighteenth Century Studies

Lietuvos ir kaimyninių šalių istoriografijoje Stačiatikių bažnyčios struktūros paskiruose Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės regionuose kaip pagrindinis tyrimų objektas pasirenkamos labai retai. Šiame straipsnyje aptarsime vieno regiono – Smolensko žemės – bažnytinius pareigūnus (vyskupus, vienuolynų archimandritus ir igumenus, cerkvių dvasininkus – šventikus ir diakonus) 1395–1514 m., kai šis regionas priklausė Lietuvos Didžiajai Kunigaikštystei. Dėmesys bus telkiamas į tris aspektus: Stačiatikių bažnyčios pareigūnų atsiradimo Smolensko žemėje laiką,

Straipsnyje aptariama, koks buvo jėzuitų požiūris į Sapiegų giminės hegemoniją Lietuvos Didžiojoje Kunigaikštystėje, kokia buvo ir kaip kito jėzuitų nuostata bei veiksmų taktika XVII a. paskutiniame dešimtmetyje – XVIII a. pirmajame dešimtmetyje, kai Lietuvą sukrėtė vidaus konfliktai, amžių sandūroje peraugę į vidaus karą. Remdamasis jėzuitiškais archyvais, autorius analizuoja: 1) Vilniaus vyskupo Konstantino Kazimiero Bžostovskio ir Vilniaus akademijos ginčą 1691–1693 m., kurio šerdis buvo nesutarimai dėl vyskupo, kaip Akademijos kanclerio, prerogatyvų ir jo valdžios studentams; 2) sunkią vienuolių padėtį ginčijantis Vilniaus vyskupui ir Lietuvos didžiajam etmonui bei Vilniaus vaivadai Kazimierui Jonui Sapiegai; 3) jėzuitų požiūrį į antisapieginę opoziciją bei jėzuitų veiksmus, kai grupuočių konfliktas Lietuvoje peraugo į vidaus karą, netrukus susiliejusį su Didžiuoju Šiaurės karu. Autorius pabrėžia jėzuitų priklausomybę nuo Sapiegų, kurie ne tik finansiškai rėmė ordino institucijas, bet ir turėjo galingą spaudimo įrankį – galimybę manipuliuoti skirstant kariuomenei pastovius ir žiemojimo vietas dvaruose bei renkant hibernos mokestį. Straipsnyje pastebima, kad jėzuitai prisidėjo prie Lietuvos didžiojo etmono ir jo giminės prestižo ir šlovės kūrimo, todėl Sapiegoms nepalanki bajorija įtarinėjo jėzuitus simpatizavimu Sapiegoms. Tai lėmė blogus jėzuitų santykius su antisapiegine opozicija, vadinamaisiais respublikonais. Tik tada, kai 1700 m. lapkričio 18 d. Sapiegų pajėgos buvo sumuštos Valkininkų mūšyje, jėzuitai buvo priversti ieškoti naujų globėjų, stengėsi užmegzti ryšius su pagrindiniais respublikonų vadais.

The article is dedicated to discussion about the opportunities artists had in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania, what factors were defining artist’s career and his valuation and how it changed along with social and cultural shifts in the country. Historical sources retain names of around 700 artists that worked in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The artists belonged to a peculiar inter-estate stratum with significant differences in education, social and economic situation. Majority of artists lived and worked in towns, with smaller part working in the manors of noblemen under continuous service or temporary contracts, and also there was a small number of artist friars who did jobs in various convents of the country. Social and economic situation of artists in towns was similar to that of craftsmen, yet artists working in the manors of aristocrats usually had status of the middle-rank manor officials. Still, eighteenth-century artists were able to achieve higher levels of career than most of craftsmen because of the rank of their patrons. The work of artists was in demand mostly in higher levels of society and that determined better pay, sponsoring of studies and other kind of encouragement. Career opportunities for artists were usually defined by their reputation and education. The top level of the career was occupied by the status of royal court artist, which was a guarantee of high qualification. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Church hierarchy, when trying to realize important projects sought to engage the royal masters. Artists that studied abroad were also in demand. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, because of the deficit of good artists, tried to keep those artists that worked long-term in their manors. Career of a court artist guaranteed steady payment and legal protection, however artists not always desired long-term service because of the significant limitations on their life and work. Difficulties in searching for a decent master encouraged noblemen to keep artists in their manors while teaching arts to local kids. The need in arts for vocation or special gifts is demonstrated by the fact that only a small part of children selected by the noblemen were able to learn painting. Apart from the ties to influential customers, to the career of an artist were important links to requested architects, also familial links to the ruling elites of towns and important officials of the courts. In the second half of the eighteenth century, especially at the end of the century, attitude towards artistic occupation has incurred significant changes. Social status of famous artists, large compensations and ennoblement affected attitudes towards arts among both the society and the artists, and promoted its prestige. Rise of prestige of the profession was aided by the fact that society started appreciating more of the local artists (artists-fellow countrymen). They have begun to be mentioned in various contexts among the most deserving of the nation.

The article analyses data of the 567 Franciscan Friars Conventual from the Lithuanian St Casimir province, who died in the period of 1775–1832: age of entry, geographic and social background. These are the factors that allow to restore the dynamics of the development of this brotherhood. Order of Friars Minor Conventual accepted individuals from 12 to 40 years of age (94.6 % of all candidates), and this was in accordance with age requirements set within the Franciscan Order. Later, when faced with the calling crisis, the brotherhood started integrating candidates of a more mature age (sometimes even 67 years old) who could become both lay brothers (Lat. laicus professus) and friars priests (Lat. clericus proffessus). Likewise, both groups could include married men, who were formally named as friars of the Third Order (Lat. tertiarius claustralis). Therefore, this flexibility of the brotherhood, its ability to deal with the issues of the period, ensured viability of the community. The research revealed, that sometimes the brotherhood would be “enlivened” by the inter-congregational “migration” of the friars, which was not voluminous: the Franciscan Order would be joined by friars formerly from Carthusian, Bernardine, Discalced Carmelite and Piarist orders, yet sometimes Franciscan Conventual Friars would leave for the Dominicans or the Carmelites. Such movement shows the continuous search by the “men of prayer” on the path of spiritual calling. The established presence of several converts (Uniats, Jews) in the brotherhood shows that the Franciscans did have, even if not strong, influence in towns and in the eastern part of the Grand Duchy. On the other hand, “migrant” friars and converts would enrich the brotherhood spiritually and culturally. The dominance of nobility in the brotherhood shows specific social identity of the Franciscans Conventual. This was the reason for such limited number of callings, because eastern part of the province was dominated by the Uniats and nobility was less numerous. The other side of this phenomenon was that regions of Podlasie, Mazovia and Samogitia (with only one convent in each), with a numerous presence of Roman Catholic petty nobility, have become the resource “bases” for Franciscan candidates, unlike voivodeships of Vilnius, Trakai and Polatsk with the thickest network of convents, where the number of callings was small. townspeople (half of them from Vilnius and the rest – from other regional towns). Around 9 % of the friars were from peasantry (most of them were from the Franciscan dominions, also nearby parishes as well as further located parishes). The largest part, a whole 68 %, were individuals from nobility. Such social composition was first of all defined by family relations, when after one person joining the convent others would follow, either close or more distant relatives. At the same time, attracting (recruitment) of the new members was aided by the appeal of the Franciscans, their influence in society and their devotion. In time, a peculiar symbiosis of confessional and social factors was formed, when joining the brotherhood

Straipsnyje tiriama Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės vieškelių tinklo struktūra XVI–XVII a. Aptariama istoriografija ir pristatoma, kiek yra ištirta susisiekimo istorija. Analizuotos šaltiniuose užfiksuotos sąvokos, kuriomis įvardijami keliai ir vieškeliai. Nagrinėtas vieškelių tinklo išdėstymas teritorijoje. Nusakyti LDK miestai, labiausiai „apraizgyti“ vieškelių ir geriausiai įjungti į lokalinę bei regioninę susisiekimo sistemą. Remiantis empiriniais duomenimis, nubraižyta XVI–XVII a. LDK vieškelių tinklo kartoschema ir pateiktas šaltiniuose fiksuotų vieškelių sąrašas.