XVIII amžiaus studijos / The Eighteenth Century Studies

Lietuvos ir kaimyninių šalių istoriografijoje Stačiatikių bažnyčios struktūros paskiruose Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės regionuose kaip pagrindinis tyrimų objektas pasirenkamos labai retai. Šiame straipsnyje aptarsime vieno regiono – Smolensko žemės – bažnytinius pareigūnus (vyskupus, vienuolynų archimandritus ir igumenus, cerkvių dvasininkus – šventikus ir diakonus) 1395–1514 m., kai šis regionas priklausė Lietuvos Didžiajai Kunigaikštystei. Dėmesys bus telkiamas į tris aspektus: Stačiatikių bažnyčios pareigūnų atsiradimo Smolensko žemėje laiką,

Straipsnyje analizuojama, kokia Romos katalikų dvasininkų tarnybos prasižengimų samprata funkcionavo pasaulietinės valdžios sferoje vadinamajame Šiaurės vakarų krašte (jam priklausiusiose Vilniaus ir Žemaičių (Telšių) vyskupijose) dešimtmečiais po 1863–1864 m. sukilimo ir iki XX a. pradžios. Nagrinėjama katalikų dvasininkų luomo teisinė situacija ir bausmių dvasininkams skyrimo praktika, besiformavusi po 1863–1864 m. sukilimo. Detaliau aptariant bausmes dvasininkams už tarnybos prasižengimus siekiama parodyti ne tik pasaulietinės valdžios požiūrį į dvasininkų luomą, bet ir dvasininkų socialinę laikyseną anuometinėje visuomenėje, požiūrį į savo luomo pareigas.

The article is dedicated to the research of the private correspondence of inhabitants of local voivodeships in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the period between the end of 1794 and the first three quarters of 1795. The aim of the article is to see the reactions of state or powiat officers, regular nobles, bishops, lower ranking clerics and friars, university professors and military officers towards changes the that were eliminating the statehood and to reveal general tendencies of the letters. The letters that mention political changes in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the end of the year 1794 to the first three quarters of 1795 are not many – 24 pieces. Most of the letters were written from rural areas, provincial towns and boroughs, 5 letters are from Vilnius and 3 from Grodno. Sometimes the letters mention the Supreme Board of the Land, the Russian imperial institution, which then had taken over the governance. In very seldom cases the fact of swearing oath to the Empire is mentioned. The topic of loyalty to the new government is also rare, mostly when talking about communication with the newly formed administration or officers of the foreign army. The letter that stands out is the one by Feliks Warzyński, the flagbearer of Samogitia and elder of Tirkšliai, the text of which is addressing the breaking of the law during a dietine. The most common topic of private correspondence is the factor of the Russian Imperial army. The authors that wrote on these topics mention taxes, supplying of food and feed, lootings, and the options of protecting their possessions. The letters mention pursuit of favour from the top military leadership and commanders of units. This was a pragmatic, situation based pursuit. The reverberations of the 1794 uprising of T. Kościuszko are not ample in the private correspondence. Residents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania complained and pleaded, for themselves or their relatives, regarding their status of prisoners, also property and food taken by the military in the course of the uprising. The style of most letters is sufficiently calm and business-like, although sometimes bursting with sadness, hopelessness and uncertainty. Sometimes they tell of the very situation of this deep crisis, mentioning the devastation of the land, hunger and difficulty in communicating.

The article is dedicated to discussion about the opportunities artists had in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania, what factors were defining artist’s career and his valuation and how it changed along with social and cultural shifts in the country. Historical sources retain names of around 700 artists that worked in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The artists belonged to a peculiar inter-estate stratum with significant differences in education, social and economic situation. Majority of artists lived and worked in towns, with smaller part working in the manors of noblemen under continuous service or temporary contracts, and also there was a small number of artist friars who did jobs in various convents of the country. Social and economic situation of artists in towns was similar to that of craftsmen, yet artists working in the manors of aristocrats usually had status of the middle-rank manor officials. Still, eighteenth-century artists were able to achieve higher levels of career than most of craftsmen because of the rank of their patrons. The work of artists was in demand mostly in higher levels of society and that determined better pay, sponsoring of studies and other kind of encouragement. Career opportunities for artists were usually defined by their reputation and education. The top level of the career was occupied by the status of royal court artist, which was a guarantee of high qualification. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Church hierarchy, when trying to realize important projects sought to engage the royal masters. Artists that studied abroad were also in demand. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, because of the deficit of good artists, tried to keep those artists that worked long-term in their manors. Career of a court artist guaranteed steady payment and legal protection, however artists not always desired long-term service because of the significant limitations on their life and work. Difficulties in searching for a decent master encouraged noblemen to keep artists in their manors while teaching arts to local kids. The need in arts for vocation or special gifts is demonstrated by the fact that only a small part of children selected by the noblemen were able to learn painting. Apart from the ties to influential customers, to the career of an artist were important links to requested architects, also familial links to the ruling elites of towns and important officials of the courts. In the second half of the eighteenth century, especially at the end of the century, attitude towards artistic occupation has incurred significant changes. Social status of famous artists, large compensations and ennoblement affected attitudes towards arts among both the society and the artists, and promoted its prestige. Rise of prestige of the profession was aided by the fact that society started appreciating more of the local artists (artists-fellow countrymen). They have begun to be mentioned in various contexts among the most deserving of the nation.

Straipsnyje tiriama Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės vieškelių tinklo struktūra XVI–XVII a. Aptariama istoriografija ir pristatoma, kiek yra ištirta susisiekimo istorija. Analizuotos šaltiniuose užfiksuotos sąvokos, kuriomis įvardijami keliai ir vieškeliai. Nagrinėtas vieškelių tinklo išdėstymas teritorijoje. Nusakyti LDK miestai, labiausiai „apraizgyti“ vieškelių ir geriausiai įjungti į lokalinę bei regioninę susisiekimo sistemą. Remiantis empiriniais duomenimis, nubraižyta XVI–XVII a. LDK vieškelių tinklo kartoschema ir pateiktas šaltiniuose fiksuotų vieškelių sąrašas.