XVIII amžiaus studijos / The Eighteenth Century Studies

The exiles of Smolensk Voivodeship, who moved from Moscow territories occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the late seventeenth century and established in currently ethnic part of Lithuania, in the eighteenth century were faced with the issues of socio-economic integration, relocation of institutions of self-government and preservation of their functionality. Although the Sejm of the Commonwealth of Both Nations through the Constitutions put considerable efforts to legitimize the disposition of property intended for the exiles, and ultimately recognize it as private property, this had to be done quite periodically (1699, 1703, 1717, 1775, and 1786). Similarly, the Sejm of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was forced to constantly remind about the need to ensure the activities of the institutions of self government of the exiles in Smolensk Voivodeship, and to legitimize the changed locations of their activities (1667, 1736,

The article is dedicated to discussion about the opportunities artists had in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania, what factors were defining artist’s career and his valuation and how it changed along with social and cultural shifts in the country. Historical sources retain names of around 700 artists that worked in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The artists belonged to a peculiar inter-estate stratum with significant differences in education, social and economic situation. Majority of artists lived and worked in towns, with smaller part working in the manors of noblemen under continuous service or temporary contracts, and also there was a small number of artist friars who did jobs in various convents of the country. Social and economic situation of artists in towns was similar to that of craftsmen, yet artists working in the manors of aristocrats usually had status of the middle-rank manor officials. Still, eighteenth-century artists were able to achieve higher levels of career than most of craftsmen because of the rank of their patrons. The work of artists was in demand mostly in higher levels of society and that determined better pay, sponsoring of studies and other kind of encouragement. Career opportunities for artists were usually defined by their reputation and education. The top level of the career was occupied by the status of royal court artist, which was a guarantee of high qualification. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Church hierarchy, when trying to realize important projects sought to engage the royal masters. Artists that studied abroad were also in demand. Noblemen of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, because of the deficit of good artists, tried to keep those artists that worked long-term in their manors. Career of a court artist guaranteed steady payment and legal protection, however artists not always desired long-term service because of the significant limitations on their life and work. Difficulties in searching for a decent master encouraged noblemen to keep artists in their manors while teaching arts to local kids. The need in arts for vocation or special gifts is demonstrated by the fact that only a small part of children selected by the noblemen were able to learn painting. Apart from the ties to influential customers, to the career of an artist were important links to requested architects, also familial links to the ruling elites of towns and important officials of the courts. In the second half of the eighteenth century, especially at the end of the century, attitude towards artistic occupation has incurred significant changes. Social status of famous artists, large compensations and ennoblement affected attitudes towards arts among both the society and the artists, and promoted its prestige. Rise of prestige of the profession was aided by the fact that society started appreciating more of the local artists (artists-fellow countrymen). They have begun to be mentioned in various contexts among the most deserving of the nation.

The article summarizes data on the training of painters and sculptors in the eighteenth-century workshops of the Radvilas’ artists. We seek to evaluate it in the context of the educational phenomena of early modern times. The analysis concerns organization of training, teaching practices, and their dissemination. In the eighteenth century, training of the subjects was carried out in the Radvilas’ residences of several generations. Some teachers were subjects of the dukes, some – arrivals working under contracts. The Radvilas continuously renewed the manor using qualified masters. Some of them were foreigners, experienced artists that mastered different art techniques. Training usually took place in the manor although there are known cases of sponsored trips of the artists to larger cities of the Commonwealth of Both Nations, where subjects improved their skills in the workshops of local artists. In the Radvilas’ residences practical training was dominant. Basics of drawing were studied first, pupils drew sculptural models, copied paintings from the collections of the aristocrats, assisted to masters in implementing orders from the dukes. Thus training in the Radvilas’ residences was performed using practices common in training artists of the early modern times. In the context of training of the Radvilas’ artists stands out the project by Jeronimas Florijonas Radvila to establish a drawing school, which had to be directed by a member of the Viennese academy of painting, sculpture and architecture, painter and drawer Lorenzo Titian de Vecceli. Perhaps in 1756, an eight- year contract was concluded according to which he was to teach young men the drawing of landscapes, figures and ornaments. In the contract this drawing school was called academy, probably after a fashion of the similar eighteenthcentury European, often small ones, schools, called academies. In Biala of Podlasie, Lorenzo Titian worked until the death of Florijonas Radvila in 1760. Although almost there is no data on activities of this artist in Biala, it is probable that the master was teaching to draw. Titian’s work for Radvila was brief and, possibly, did not have any significant influence on the education of the local artists. Despite this, Radvila’s idea and start of its implementation showed the need for higher level training of artists. Links of the Radvilas’ artists with professional and specialized educational institutions were rare. In the residences of the dukes, just like in the rest of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, dominated little formalized education of artists. Although it was not always effective, it has produced a number of masters that continued working for the Radvilas. Tutors were usually shared among family members, although there is data on the work of the artists of the dukes for the representatives of other families. Having in mind the scope and dissemination of the training of artists, residences of the Radvilas can be considered one of the important centres of art education in the eighteenth-century Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

The article analyses data of the 567 Franciscan Friars Conventual from the Lithuanian St Casimir province, who died in the period of 1775–1832: age of entry, geographic and social background. These are the factors that allow to restore the dynamics of the development of this brotherhood. Order of Friars Minor Conventual accepted individuals from 12 to 40 years of age (94.6 % of all candidates), and this was in accordance with age requirements set within the Franciscan Order. Later, when faced with the calling crisis, the brotherhood started integrating candidates of a more mature age (sometimes even 67 years old) who could become both lay brothers (Lat. laicus professus) and friars priests (Lat. clericus proffessus). Likewise, both groups could include married men, who were formally named as friars of the Third Order (Lat. tertiarius claustralis). Therefore, this flexibility of the brotherhood, its ability to deal with the issues of the period, ensured viability of the community. The research revealed, that sometimes the brotherhood would be “enlivened” by the inter-congregational “migration” of the friars, which was not voluminous: the Franciscan Order would be joined by friars formerly from Carthusian, Bernardine, Discalced Carmelite and Piarist orders, yet sometimes Franciscan Conventual Friars would leave for the Dominicans or the Carmelites. Such movement shows the continuous search by the “men of prayer” on the path of spiritual calling. The established presence of several converts (Uniats, Jews) in the brotherhood shows that the Franciscans did have, even if not strong, influence in towns and in the eastern part of the Grand Duchy. On the other hand, “migrant” friars and converts would enrich the brotherhood spiritually and culturally. The dominance of nobility in the brotherhood shows specific social identity of the Franciscans Conventual. This was the reason for such limited number of callings, because eastern part of the province was dominated by the Uniats and nobility was less numerous. The other side of this phenomenon was that regions of Podlasie, Mazovia and Samogitia (with only one convent in each), with a numerous presence of Roman Catholic petty nobility, have become the resource “bases” for Franciscan candidates, unlike voivodeships of Vilnius, Trakai and Polatsk with the thickest network of convents, where the number of callings was small. townspeople (half of them from Vilnius and the rest – from other regional towns). Around 9 % of the friars were from peasantry (most of them were from the Franciscan dominions, also nearby parishes as well as further located parishes). The largest part, a whole 68 %, were individuals from nobility. Such social composition was first of all defined by family relations, when after one person joining the convent others would follow, either close or more distant relatives. At the same time, attracting (recruitment) of the new members was aided by the appeal of the Franciscans, their influence in society and their devotion. In time, a peculiar symbiosis of confessional and social factors was formed, when joining the brotherhood

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama, kaip Rusijos imperijos prisijungtose žemėse vykęs privalomas bajorystės patikrinimas virto kilminės bajorijos masiniu genealoginiu sąjūdžiu. Tiriama, kaip buvusios LDK bajorai individualiai ir kolektyviai kūrė giminės genealogiją. Atkreipiamas dėmesys į bajorystę įrodančių dokumentų ir bajorų deputacijose sudarytų bajorystės išvadų raštų bei genealogijos knygų pobūdį. Remiantis Vilniaus bajorų deputacijoje suformuotomis bajorystės bylomis, analizuojamas įvairių bajorų grupių (aristokratų, dvarininkų ir smulkiųjų bajorų) santykis su giminės praeitimi ir jų genealoginės savimonės apraiškos.